Diagnóstico micológico: de los métodos convencionales a los moleculares
Resumen
La incidencia de las infecciones fúngicas ha aumentado en las últimas décadas como consecuencia del incremento en el número de pacientes con factores predisponentes. Tanto el diagnóstico como el tratamiento de estas infecciones continúan siendo un reto para el personal de la salud. Aunque las especies de los géneros Candida, Aspergillus y Cryptococcus continúan siendo las más frecuentes, es notoria la emergencia de especies que no se habían reconocido anteriormente como patógenas para el hombre. Ante este panorama, el diagnóstico adecuado y oportuno de estas infecciones es de gran relevancia para la instauración de un tratamiento eficaz y, de esta manera, para impactar en la morbilidad y mortalidad que suelen causar algunas micosis, principalmente en los individuos inmunocomprometidos. Con esta revisión se pretende mostrar de manera general aspectos clínicos, epidemiológicos y, principalmente, relacionados con el diagnóstico de las infecciones fúngicas más frecuentes, partiendo de los métodos convencionales hasta las técnicas moleculares que actualmente se tratan de implementar en busca de un la prueba estándar de referencia que pueda superar la sensibilidad, la especificidad, la rapidez y el costo-efectividad de los métodos que se han utilizado hasta ahora en el diagnostico micológico.
Descargas
Referencias bibliográficas
Binder U, Lass-Florl C. Epidemiology of invasive fungal infections in the mediterranean area. Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis 2011; 3: e20110016.
https://doi.org/10.4084/mjhid.2011.016
Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ. Epidemiology of invasive mycoses in North America. Crit Rev Microbiol 2010; 36: 1-53.
https://doi.org/10.3109/10408410903241444
Pierce CG, Lopez-Ribot JL. Candidiasis drug discovery and development: new approaches targeting virulence for discovering and identifying new drugs. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2013; 8: 1117-1126.
https://doi.org/10.1517/17460441.2013.807245
Peman J, Salavert M. [General epidemiology of invasive fungal disease]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2012; 30: 90-98.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eimc.2011.09.004
Perfect JR. Fungal diagnosis: how do we do it and can we do better? Curr Med Res Opin 2013; 29 Suppl 4: 3-11.
https://doi.org/10.1185/03007995.2012.761134
Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ. Epidemiology of invasive candidiasis: a persistent public health problem. Clin Microbiol Rev 2007; 20: 133-163.
https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00029-06
Mora C, Tittensor DP, Adl S, Simpson AG, Worm B. How many species are there on Earth and in the ocean? PLoS Biol 2011; 9: e1001127.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127
Schmit JP, Mueller GM. An estimate of the lower limit of global fungal diversity. Biodivers Conserv 2006; 16: 99-111.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-006-9129-3
Garcia-Solache MA, Casadevall A. Global warming will bring new fungal diseases for mammals. MBio 2010; 1.
https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00061-10
Jain N, Fries BC. Fungal Infections in Humans. eLS. Chichester, Inglaterra: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2011.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470015902.a0002234.pub2
Talaro KP, Chess B. The Fungi of Medical Importance. Foundations in Microbiology (ed 9a). Nueva York, Estados Unidos: McGraw-Hill Education; 2015.
Brown GD, Denning DW, Gow NA, Levitz SM, Netea MG, White TC. Hidden killers: human fungal infections. Sci Transl Med 2012; 4: 165rv113.
https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3004404
Richardson M, Lass-Florl C. Changing epidemiology of systemic fungal infections. Clin Microbiol Infect 2008; 14 Suppl 4: 5-24.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2008.01978.x
Hsu LY, Wijaya L, Shu-Ting Ng E, Gotuzzo E. Tropical fungal infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2012; 26: 497-512.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2012.02.004
Ribeiro CS, Zaitz C, Framil VM, Ottoboni TS, Tonoli MS, Ribeiro RP. Descriptive study of onychomycosis in a hospital in Sao Paulo. Braz J Microbiol 2015; 46: 485-492.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-838246220130541
Cruz Ch R, Ponce E E, Calderón R L, Delgado V N, Vieille O P, Piontelli L E. Micosis superficiales en la ciudad de Valparaíso, Chile: Período 2007-2009. Rev Chil Infect 2011; 28: 40-409.
https://doi.org/10.4067/S0716-10182011000600002
Martinez Mendez D, Hernandez Valles R, Alvarado P, Mendoza M. [Mycoses in Venezuela: Working Groups in Mycology reported cases (1984-2010)]. Rev Iberoam Micol 2013; 30: 39-46.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riam.2012.10.001
Sugui JA, Kwon-Chung KJ, Juvvadi PR, Latge JP, Steinbach WJ. Aspergillus fumigatus and related species. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2015; 5: a019786.
https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a019786
Nucci M, Anaissie E. Fusarium infections in immunocompromised patients. Clin Microbiol Rev 2007; 20: 695-704.
https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00014-07
Nucci M, Queiroz-Telles F, Tobon AM, Restrepo A, Colombo AL. Epidemiology of opportunistic fungal infections in Latin America. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 51: 561-570.
https://doi.org/10.1086/655683
Meyer W, Castaneda A, Jackson S, Huynh M, Castaneda E. Molecular typing of IberoAmerican Cryptococcus neoformans isolates. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9: 189-195.
https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0902.020246
Sanclemente G, Mahecha M, Guzman C. Enfermedades de la piel más frecuentes en la consulta externa dermatológica del Hospital Universitario San Vicente de Paúl y del Hospital Infantil. Medellín, 1999 Acta Méd Colomb 2001; 26: 240-244.
Mejía-Arango MA, Santa-Vélez C, Cadavid-Sierra M, Vélez LM, Colmenares LM, Restrepo-Jaramillo BN, et al. Estudio etiológico y epidemiológico de las micosis cutáneas en un laboratorio de referencia - Antioquia - Colombia. CES Med 2013; 27: 7-19.
Zuluaga de C A, de Bedout C, Tabares A, Cano LE, Restrepo A, Arango M, et al. Comportamiento de los agentes etiológicos de las onicomicosis en un laboratorio de micologia de referencia (Medellín 1994-2003). Med Cutan Iber Lat Am 2005; 33: 251-256.
Rubio G, Sanchez G, Porras L, Alvarado Z. [Sporotrichosis: prevalence, clinical and epidemiological features in a reference center in Colombia]. Rev Iberoam Micol 2010; 27: 75-79.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riam.2010.01.001
Mesa Arango A, Sánchez M. Esporotricosis: una experiencia en Medellín, Antioquia. Rev Mex Micol 2000; 16: 11-16.
Calle D, Rosero DS, Orozco LC, Camargo D, Castaneda E, Restrepo A. Paracoccidioidomycosis in Colombia: an ecological study. Epidemiol Infect 2001; 126: 309-315.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268801005052
Restrepo A, Benard G, de Castro CC, Agudelo CA, Tobon AM. Pulmonary paracoccidioidomycosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 29: 182-197.
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1063857
Torrado E, Castañeda E, de la Hoz F, Restrepo A. Paracoccidioidomicocis: definición de las áreas endémicas de Colombia. Biomédica 2000; 20: 327-334.
https://doi.org/10.7705/biomedica.v20i4.1076
The Society for Leukocyte Biology. Membership directory. The Society for Leukocyte Biology. J Leukoc Biol 1989; 46: 367-405.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jlb.46.4.367
Escandón P, de Bedout C, Lizarazo J, Agudelo CI, Tobón Á, Bello S, et al. Cryptococcosis in Colombia: Results of the national surveillance program for the years 2006-2010. Biomédica 2012; 32: 386-398.
https://doi.org/10.7705/biomedica.v32i3.707
Cortes JA, Jaimes JA, Leal AL. [Incidence and prevalence of candidemia in critically ill patients in Colombia]. Rev Chilena Infectol 2013; 30: 599-604.
https://doi.org/10.4067/S0716-10182013000600004
Ortiz Ruiz G, Osorio J, Valderrama S, Alvarez D, Elias Diaz R, Calderon J, et al. Risk factors for candidemia in non-neutropenic critical patients in Colombia. Med Intensiva 2015.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medine.2015.08.005
Tille PM. Overview of Fungal Identification Methods and Strategies. En: Tille PM, ed. Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology (ed 13a). Misuri, Estados Unidos: Elsevier Mosby; 2014: 705-731.
Mendoza N, Palacios CP, Cardona N, Gómez Vargas LM. Onicomicosis: afección común de difícil tratamiento. Rev Asoc Colomb Dermatol 2012; 20: 149-158.
https://doi.org/10.29176/2590843X.224
Feuilhade de Chauvin M. [Treatment of onychomycosis]. J Mycol Med 2014; 24: 296-302.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mycmed.2014.10.009
Mahajan VK. Sporotrichosis: an overview and therapeutic options. Dermatol Res Pract 2014; 2014: 272376.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/272376
Krzysciak PM, Pindycka-Piaszczynska M, Piaszczynski M. Chromoblastomycosis. Postepy Dermatol Alergol 2014; 31: 310-321.
https://doi.org/10.5114/pdia.2014.40949
Welsh O, Al-Abdely HM, Salinas-Carmona MC, Fahal AH. Mycetoma medical therapy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8: e3218.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003218
Francesconi VA, Klein AP, Santos AP, Ramasawmy R, Francesconi F. Lobomycosis: epidemiology, clinical presentation, and management options. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2014; 10: 851-860.
https://doi.org/10.2147/TCRM.S46251
Leroy O, Gangneux JP, Montravers P, Mira JP, Gouin F, Sollet JP, et al. Epidemiology, management, and risk factors for death of invasive Candida infections in critical care: a multicenter, prospective, observational study in France (2005-2006). Crit Care Med 2009; 37: 1612-1618.
https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e31819efac0
Patel PK, Erlandsen JE, Kirkpatrick WR, Berg DK, Westbrook SD, Louden C, et al. The Changing Epidemiology of Oropharyngeal Candidiasis in Patients with HIV/AIDS in the Era of Antiretroviral Therapy. AIDS Res Treat 2012; 2012: 262471.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/262471
Sobel JD. Vulvovaginal candidosis. Lancet 2007; 369: 1961-1971.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60917-9
Horn DL, Neofytos D, Anaissie EJ, Fishman JA, Steinbach WJ, Olyaei AJ, et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of candidemia in 2019 patients: data from the prospective antifungal therapy alliance registry. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48: 1695-1703.
https://doi.org/10.1086/599039
Del Palacio A, Villar J, Alhambra A. [Epidemiology of invasive candidiasis in pediatric and adult populations]. Rev Iberoam Micol 2009; 26: 2-7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1130-1406(09)70002-6
Spellberg B, Marr K, SG F. En: Calderone RA CC, ed. Candida and Candidiasis. Washington, DC.: ASM Press; 2012: 225-242.
Almirante B, Rodriguez D, Park BJ, Cuenca-Estrella M, Planes AM, Almela M, et al. Epidemiology and predictors of mortality in cases of Candida bloodstream infection: results from population-based surveillance, barcelona, Spain, from 2002 to 2003. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 1829-1835.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.43.4.1829-1835.2005
Chai LY, Denning DW, Warn P. Candida tropicalis in human disease. Crit Rev Microbiol 2010; 36: 282-298.
https://doi.org/10.3109/1040841X.2010.489506
Ngamskulrungroj P, Chang Y, Roh J, Kwon-Chung KJ. Differences in nitrogen metabolism between Cryptococcus neoformans and C. gattii, the two etiologic agents of cryptococcosis. PLoS One 2012; 7: e34258.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0034258
Byrnes EJ, 3rd, Bartlett KH, Perfect JR, Heitman J. Cryptococcus gattii: an emerging fungal pathogen infecting humans and animals. Microbes Infect 2011; 13: 895-907.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2011.05.009
Colombo AL, Padovan AC, Chaves GM. Current knowledge of Trichosporon spp. and Trichosporonosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011; 24: 682-700.
https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00003-11
Montagna MT, Caggiano G, Lovero G, De Giglio O, Coretti C, Cuna T, et al. Epidemiology of invasive fungal infections in the intensive care unit: results of a multicenter Italian survey (AURORA Project). Infection 2013; 41: 645-653.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s15010-013-0432-0
Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Mellado E, Pelaez T, Peman J, Zapico S, Alvarez M, et al. Population-based survey of filamentous fungi and antifungal resistance in Spain (FILPOP Study). Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57: 3380-3387.
https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00383-13
Morace G, Borghi E. Invasive mold infections: virulence and pathogenesis of mucorales. Int J Microbiol 2012; 2012: 349278.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/349278
Latge JP. Aspergillus fumigatus and aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 1999; 12: 310-350.
https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.12.2.310
Lass-Florl C, Griff K, Mayr A, Petzer A, Gastl G, Bonatti H, et al. Epidemiology and outcome of infections due to Aspergillus terreus: 10-year single centre experience. Br J Haematol 2005; 131: 201-207.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.2005.05763.x
Kontoyiannis DP, Lewis RE, May GS, Osherov N, Rinaldi MG. Aspergillus nidulans is frequently resistant to amphotericin B. Mycoses 2002; 45: 406-407.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0507.2002.00797.x
Krishnan S, Manavathu EK, Chandrasekar PH. Aspergillus flavus: an emerging non-fumigatus Aspergillus species of significance. Mycoses 2009; 52: 206-222.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0507.2008.01642.x
Balajee SA, Gribskov JL, Hanley E, Nickle D, Marr KA. Aspergillus lentulus sp. nov., a new sibling species of A. fumigatus. Eukaryot Cell 2005; 4: 625-632.
https://doi.org/10.1128/EC.4.3.625-632.2005
Nucci M, Varon AG, Garnica M, Akiti T, Barreiros G, Trope BM, et al. Increased incidence of invasive fusariosis with cutaneous portal of entry, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 2013; 19: 1567-1572.
https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1910.120847
Muhammed M, Coleman JJ, Carneiro HA, Mylonakis E. The challenge of managing fusariosis. Virulence 2011; 2: 91-96.
https://doi.org/10.4161/viru.2.2.15015
Esnakula AK, Summers I, Naab TJ. Fatal disseminated fusarium infection in a human immunodeficiency virus positive patient. Case Rep Infect Dis 2013; 2013: 379320.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/379320
Kontoyiannis DP, Lewis RE. How I treat mucormycosis. Blood 2011; 118: 1216-1224.
https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2011-03-316430
Hage CA, Knox KS, Wheat LJ. Endemic mycoses: overlooked causes of community acquired pneumonia. Respir Med 2012; 106: 769-776.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2012.02.004
Marques SA. Paracoccidioidomycosis. Clin Dermatol 2012; 30: 610-615.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2012.01.006
Chakrabarti A, Bonifaz A, Gutierrez-Galhardo MC, Mochizuki T, Li S. Global epidemiology of sporotrichosis. Med Mycol 2015; 53: 3-14.
https://doi.org/10.1093/mmy/myu062
Jarboui MA, Mseddi F, Sellami H, Sellami A, Makni F, Ayadi A. [Pneumocystis: epidemiology and molecular approaches]. Pathol Biol (Paris) 2013; 61: 239-244.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patbio.2013.05.001
Kauffman CA. Pearls in Establishing a Clinical Diagnosis: Signs and Symptoms. En: Maertens JA, Marr KA, eds. Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. Nueva York, Estados Unidos: Informa Healthcare USA, Inc.; 2007: 1-17.
https://doi.org/10.3109/9781420017182-1
Abu-Elteen KH, Hamad MA. Changing Epidemiology of Classical and Emerging Human Fungal Infections: A Review. Jordan J Biol Sci 2012; 5: 215-230.
Rezaei-Matehkolaei A, Mirhendi H, Makimura K, de Hoog GS, Satoh K, Najafzadeh MJ, et al. Nucleotide sequence analysis of beta tubulin gene in a wide range of dermatophytes. Med Mycol 2014; 52: 674-688.
https://doi.org/10.1093/mmy/myu033
Monod M, Lurati M, Baudraz-Rosselet F. [Diagnosis of non dermatophyte onychomycosis ant its relevance for treatment]. Rev Med Suisse 2013; 9: 730-733.
Baskova L, Buchta V. Laboratory diagnostics of invasive fungal infections: an overview with emphasis on molecular approach. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2012; 57: 421-430.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12223-012-0152-3
Bernal-Martinez L, Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Cuenca-Estrella M. Diagnostics and susceptibility testing in Aspergillus. Future Microbiol 2016; 11: 315-328.
https://doi.org/10.2217/fmb.15.140
Ayats J, Martin-Mazuelos E, Peman J, Quindos G, Sanchez F, Garcia-Rodriguez J, et al. [Spanish Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (SEIMC) guidelines for the diagnosis of invasive fungal infections. 2010 update]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2011; 29: 39 e31-15.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eimc.2010.08.005
Chaya AK, Pande S. Methods of specimen collection for diagnosis of superficial and subcutaneous fungal infections. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2007; 73: 202-205.
https://doi.org/10.4103/0378-6323.32753
Mulla AF, Shah AA, Koshy AV, Mayank M. Laboratory diagnosis of fungal infection. Univ Res J Dent 2015; 5: 49-53.
https://doi.org/10.4103/2249-9725.157723
Verweij PE, van der Lee HAL, Rijs AJMM. The Role of Conventional Diagnostic Tools. En: Maertens JA, Marr KA, eds. Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. Nueva York, Estados Unidos: Informa Healthcare USA, Inc.; 2007: 19-39.
https://doi.org/10.3109/9781420017182.002
Guarner J, Brandt ME. Histopathologic diagnosis of fungal infections in the 21st century. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011; 24: 247-280.
https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00053-10
Quindos G, Eraso E, Lopez-Soria LM, Ezpeleta G. [Invasive fungal disease: conventional or molecular mycological diagnosis?]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2012; 30: 560-571.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eimc.2011.10.018
Kozel TR, Wickes B. Fungal diagnostics. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2014; 4: a019299.
https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a019299
Lamoth F, Alexander BD. Nonmolecular methods for the diagnosis of respiratory fungal infections. Clin Lab Med 2014; 34: 315-336.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cll.2014.02.006
Guimaraes AJ, Pizzini CV, De Matos Guedes HL, Albuquerque PC, Peralta JM, Hamilton AJ, et al. ELISA for early diagnosis of histoplasmosis. J Med Microbiol 2004; 53: 509-514.
https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.05469-0
de Azevedo PZ, Sylvestre TF, Cavalcante Rde S, de Carvalho LR, Moris DV, de Oliveira ML, et al. Evaluation of the Double Agar Gel Immunodiffusion Test and of the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay in the Diagnosis and Follow-Up of Patients with Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis. PLoS One 2015; 10: e0134841.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134841
Alvarado P, Ostos A, Franquiz N, Roschman-Gonzalez A, Zambrano EA, Mendoza M. [Serological diagnosis of sporotrichosis using an antigen of Sporothrix schenckii sensu stricto mycelium]. Invest Clin 2015; 56: 111-122.
Held J, Kohlberger I, Rappold E, Busse Grawitz A, Hacker G. Comparison of (1->3)-beta-D-glucan, mannan/anti-mannan antibodies, and Cand-Tec Candida antigen as serum biomarkers for candidemia. J Clin Microbiol 2013; 51: 1158-1164.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02473-12
Mikulska M, Calandra T, Sanguinetti M, Poulain D, Viscoli C. The use of mannan antigen and anti-mannan antibodies in the diagnosis of invasive candidiasis: recommendations from the Third European Conference on Infections in Leukemia. Crit Care 2010; 14: R222.
https://doi.org/10.1186/cc9365
Fernandes VC, Coitinho JB, Veloso JM, Araujo SA, Pedroso EP, Goes AM. Combined use of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis recombinant rPb27 and rPb40 antigens in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for immunodiagnosis of paracoccidioidomycosis. J Immunol Methods 2011; 367: 78-84.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jim.2011.02.006
Zhang X, Gibson B, Jr., Daly TM. Evaluation of commercially available reagents for diagnosis of histoplasmosis infection in immunocompromised patients. J Clin Microbiol 2013; 51: 4095-4101.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02298-13
Hage CA, Ribes JA, Wengenack NL, Baddour LM, Assi M, McKinsey DS, et al. A multicenter evaluation of tests for diagnosis of histoplasmosis. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53: 448-454.
https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cir435
De Pauw B, Walsh TJ, Donnelly JP, Stevens DA, Edwards JE, Calandra T, et al. Revised definitions of invasive fungal disease from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group (EORTC/MSG) Consensus Group. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 1813-1821.
https://doi.org/10.1086/588660
Einsele H, Loeffler J. Contribution of new diagnostic approaches to antifungal treatment plans in high-risk haematology patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2008; 14 Suppl 4: 37-45.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2008.01980.x
Lu Y, Chen YQ, Guo YL, Qin SM, Wu C, Wang K. Diagnosis of invasive fungal disease using serum (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan: a bivariate meta-analysis. Intern Med 2011; 50: 2783-2791.
https://doi.org/10.2169/internalmedicine.50.6175
Arvanitis M, Mylonakis E. Diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis: recent developments and ongoing challenges. Eur J Clin Invest 2015; 45: 646-652.
https://doi.org/10.1111/eci.12448
Kauffman CA, Bergman AG, Severance PJ, McClatchey KD. Detection of cryptococcal antigen. Comparison of two latex agglutination tests. Am J Clin Pathol 1981; 75: 106-109.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcp/75.1.106
Wang H, Yuan X, Zhang L. Latex agglutination: diagnose the early cryptococcus neoformans test of capsular polysaccharide antigen. Pak J Pharm Sci 2015; 28: 307-311.
Thornton CR. Development of an immunochromatographic lateral-flow device for rapid serodiagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2008; 15: 1095-1105.
https://doi.org/10.1128/CVI.00068-08
Pan Z, Fu M, Zhang J, Zhou H, Fu Y, Zhou J. Diagnostic accuracy of a novel lateral-flow device in invasive aspergillosis: a meta-analysis. J Med Microbiol 2015; 64: 702-707.
https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.000092
White PL, Parr C, Thornton C, Barnes RA. Evaluation of real-time PCR, galactomannan enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and a novel lateral-flow device for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. J Clin Microbiol 2013; 51: 1510-1516.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.03189-12
de Heer K, van der Schee MP, Zwinderman K, van den Berk IA, Visser CE, van Oers R, et al. Electronic nose technology for detection of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in prolonged chemotherapy-induced neutropenia: a proof-of-principle study. J Clin Microbiol 2013; 51: 1490-1495.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02838-12
Koo S, Thomas HR, Daniels SD, Lynch RC, Fortier SM, Shea MM, et al. A breath fungal secondary metabolite signature to diagnose invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 59: 1733-1740.
https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciu725
Heddergott C, Calvo AM, Latge JP. The volatome of Aspergillus fumigatus. Eukaryot Cell 2014; 13: 1014-1025.
https://doi.org/10.1128/EC.00074-14
Hoog G, Guarro J, Tan C, Wintermans R, Gené J. Hyphomycetes. En: Hoog G, Guarro J, Gené J, Figueras M, eds. Atlas of clinical fungi (ed 2da). Utrecht, Países Bajos: ASM Press; 2000: 380-1007.
Coleman JJ, Muhammed M, Kasperkovitz PV, Vyas JM, Mylonakis E. Fusarium pathogenesis investigated using Galleria mellonella as a heterologous host. Fungal Biol 2011; 115: 1279-1289.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funbio.2011.09.005
Kurzai O. Human Fungal Pathogens (ed 2da). Berlín, Alemania: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg; 2014.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39432-4
Bhabhra R, Askew DS. Thermotolerance and virulence of Aspergillus fumigatus: role of the fungal nucleolus. Med Mycol 2005; 43 Suppl 1: S87-93.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13693780400029486
Anaissie EJ, McGinnis MR, Pfaller MA. Clinical Mycology (ed 2da). Edimburgo, Escocia: Churchill Livingstone; 2009.
Szaniszlo PJ. Fungal Dimorphism with Emphasis on Fungi Pathogenic for Humans. Nueva York, Estados Unidos: Springer US; 1985.
Neppelenbroek KH, Seo RS, Urban VM, Silva S, Dovigo LN, Jorge JH, et al. Identification of Candida species in the clinical laboratory: a review of conventional, commercial, and molecular techniques. Oral Dis 2014; 20: 329-344.
https://doi.org/10.1111/odi.12123
Balajee SA, Lindsley MD, Iqbal N, Ito J, Pappas PG, Brandt ME. Nonsporulating clinical isolate identified as Petromyces alliaceus (anamorph Aspergillus alliaceus) by morphological and sequence-based methods. J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45: 2701-2703.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00642-07
Paniz-Mondolfi A, Talhari C, Sander Hoffmann L, Connor DL, Talhari S, Bermudez-Villapol L, et al. Lobomycosis: an emerging disease in humans and delphinidae. Mycoses 2012; 55: 298-309.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0507.2012.02184.x
Hazen KC. Respiratory fungal infections: molecular diagnostic tests. Clin Lab Med 2014; 34: 351-364.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cll.2014.02.008
Rola B, Pawlik A, Frac M, Malek W, Targonski Z, Rogalski J, et al. The phenotypic and genomic diversity of Aspergillus strains producing glucose dehydrogenase. Acta Biochim Pol 2015; 62: 747-755.
https://doi.org/10.18388/abp.2015_1125
Gabal MA. Development of a chromosomal DNA probe for the laboratory diagnosis of aspergillosis. Mycopathologia 1989; 106: 121-129.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00437091
Moncada PA, Budvytiene I, Ho DY, Deresinski SC, Montoya JG, Banaei N. Utility of DNA sequencing for direct identification of invasive fungi from fresh and formalin-fixed specimens. Am J Clin Pathol 2013; 140: 203-208.
https://doi.org/10.1309/AJCPNSU2SDZD9WPW
Ranque S, Normand AC, Cassagne C, Murat JB, Bourgeois N, Dalle F, et al. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry identification of filamentous fungi in the clinical laboratory. Mycoses 2014; 57: 135-140.
https://doi.org/10.1111/myc.12115
Rodrigues AM, de Hoog GS, de Camargo ZP. Molecular Diagnosis of Pathogenic Sporothrix Species. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9: e0004190.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004190
White TJ, Bruns T, Lee S, Taylor J. Amplification and direct sequencing of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenetics. En: Innis MA, Gelfand DH, Sninsky JJ, White TJ, eds. PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications. California, Estados Unidos: Academic Press Inc.; 1990: 315-322.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-372180-8.50042-1
Khot PD, Fredricks DN. PCR-based diagnosis of human fungal infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2009; 7: 1201-1221.
https://doi.org/10.1586/eri.09.104
Sanguinetti M, Posteraro B, Pagano L, Pagliari G, Fianchi L, Mele L, et al. Comparison of real-time PCR, conventional PCR, and galactomannan antigen detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples from hematology patients for diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 3922-3925.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.41.8.3922-3925.2003
Sun W, Wang K, Gao W, Su X, Qian Q, Lu X, et al. Evaluation of PCR on bronchoalveolar lavage fluid for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis: a bivariate metaanalysis and systematic review. PLoS One 2011; 6: e28467.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0028467
Johnson GL, Bibby DF, Wong S, Agrawal SG, Bustin SA. A MIQE-compliant real-time PCR assay for Aspergillus detection. PLoS One 2012; 7: e40022.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0040022
McMullan R, Metwally L, Coyle PV, Hedderwick S, McCloskey B, O'Neill HJ, et al. A prospective clinical trial of a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the diagnosis of candidemia in nonneutropenic, critically ill adults. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 890-896.
https://doi.org/10.1086/528690
Das S, Larone DH. Basics of molecular methods for fungal identification En: Larone DH, ed. Medically important fungi: a guide to identification (ed 5a). Washington D.C., Estados Unidos: ASM Press; 2011: 317-335.
https://doi.org/10.1128/9781555816605
Fortun J, Meije Y, Buitrago MJ, Gago S, Bernal-Martinez L, Peman J, et al. Clinical validation of a multiplex real-time PCR assay for detection of invasive candidiasis in intensive care unit patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69: 3134-3141.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dku225
Lau A, Halliday C, Chen SC, Playford EG, Stanley K, Sorrell TC. Comparison of whole blood, serum, and plasma for early detection of candidemia by multiplex-tandem PCR. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 811-816.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01650-09
Landlinger C, Preuner S, Willinger B, Haberpursch B, Racil Z, Mayer J, et al. Species-specific identification of a wide range of clinically relevant fungal pathogens by use of Luminex xMAP technology. J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47: 1063-1073.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01558-08
Arvanitis M, Anagnostou T, Fuchs BB, Caliendo AM, Mylonakis E. Molecular and nonmolecular diagnostic methods for invasive fungal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014; 27: 490-526.
https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00091-13
Balajee SA, Sigler L, Brandt ME. DNA and the classical way: identification of medically important molds in the 21st century. Med Mycol 2007; 45: 475-490.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13693780701449425
Romanelli AM, Sutton DA, Thompson EH, Rinaldi MG, Wickes BL. Sequence-based identification of filamentous basidiomycetous fungi from clinical specimens: a cautionary note. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 741-752.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01948-09
CADTH Rapid Response Reports. MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry for Pathogen Identification: A Review of Accuracy and Clinical Effectiveness. Ottawa, Canadá: Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health; 2015.
Webster J, Oxley D. Protein Identification by MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry. En: Zanders DE, ed. Chemical Genomics and Proteomics: Reviews and Protocols. Nueva Jersey, Estados Unidos: Humana Press; 2012: 227-240.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-61779-349-3_15
Ferreira L, Sanchez-Juanes F, Gonzalez-Avila M, Cembrero-Fucinos D, Herrero-Hernandez A, Gonzalez-Buitrago JM, et al. Direct identification of urinary tract pathogens from urine samples by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 2110-2115.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02215-09
Clark AE, Kaleta EJ, Arora A, Wolk DM. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry: a fundamental shift in the routine practice of clinical microbiology. Clin Microbiol Rev 2013; 26: 547-603.
https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00072-12
Chalupova J, Raus M, Sedlarova M, Sebela M. Identification of fungal microorganisms by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Biotechnol Adv 2014; 32: 230-241.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.11.002
Ferreira L, Sanchez-Juanes F, Vega M, Gonzalez M, Garcia MI, Rodriguez S, et al. Identification of fungal clinical isolates by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Rev Esp Quimioter 2013; 26: 193-197.
Becker PT, de Bel A, Martiny D, Ranque S, Piarroux R, Cassagne C, et al. Identification of filamentous fungi isolates by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry: clinical evaluation of an extended reference spectra library. Med Mycol 2014; 52: 826-834.
https://doi.org/10.1093/mmy/myu064
Sow D, Fall B, Ndiaye M, Ba BS, Sylla K, Tine R, et al. Usefulness of MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry for Routine Identification of Candida Species in a Resource-Poor Setting. Mycopathologia 2015; 180: 173-179.
